Grammar Translation Method

Grammar Translation method is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.It hence views language learning as consisting of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of foreign language.
The principal characteristic of the grammar translation method were these :

• The goal of foreign language in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from language study

• Reading and writing are the major focus ; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening

• Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading text used and words are taught through bilingual word list, dictionary study and memorization

• The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.

• Accuracy is emphasized.

• Grammar is taught deductively, that is by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercise.

• The students’s native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparison to be made between the foreign language ad the students native language.

Grammar translation method dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s and in modified from it contiunes to be widely used in spome parts of the world today.In the mid and late ninteeth century opposition to the grammar translation method gradually developed in several European countries. This reform movement as it was reffered to laid the foundationfor the development of news ways teaching languages and raised controversies that have continued to the present day.

The Nature Of Approaches And Methods In Language Teaching

An approach is a set corelative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.

Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts and all of which is based upon the selecected approach. An approach is axiomatic , a method is procedurall.

A technique is implementational that which actually takes places in a classroom. It is particular trick, stratagem or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques mus be consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

At least three different theoritical views of language and the nature of language proficiency explicitly or implicitly inform current approaches and methods in language teaching. The first and the most traditional of the three, is the structurak view, the view that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding  of meaning. The second view of language is the functional view, the view that language is vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The third view of language can be called the interactional view, it sees language as vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relation and for the performance of social transactions between individuals.

A learning theory underlying an approach or method respond to two questions :1. what are the physcolinguistic and cognitive procesess involved in language learning? And 2. what are the condition that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?

Different theories of language and language learning influence the focus of a method ; that is they determined what a method sets out to achieve. The spesification of particular learning objectives,however is a product of design, not of approach.

The objectives of method, wheter define primarily in terms of product or process, are attained through the instructional process, through organized and directed interaction of teachers , learners and material in the classroom.

A method reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learners contribution to the learning process. This is seem in the types of activities learners carry out,the degree of control learners have over the content of learning, the patterns of learner grouping adopted, the degree to which learners influence, the learning of others, and the view of the learners as processor, performer, intiator and problem solver.

Learner roles in instructional system are closely linked to the teachers status and function. Teahcer role are similarly ultimately both to assumption about language learning at the level of approach.

The instructional material in their turn further specify subject matter content, even where no syllabus exist and define or suggest the intensity of coverage syllabus item, allocating the amount of time, attention and detailed particular syllabus items task require.

Total Physical Response

Total Phsysical Response is a language teaching method built around the coordination of speech an action ; it attempts to teach language through physical acvity.

TPR reflects a grammar based view of language. Asher states that most of grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be learned from the skillful use of the imperative by the instructor. Asher see a stimulus response view as providing the learning theory underlying language teaching pedagogy. TPR can also be linked to the trace theory of memory in physcology, which holds that the more often or the more intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory association will be and the more likely it will be recalled.
The general objectives of total physical response are to teach oral proficiency at beginning level. Comprehension is means to an end and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills. A TPR course aim to produce learners who are capable of an uninhibitation communication that is intellegible to a native speaker. Spesific instructional objectives are not elaborated for these will depend on particular needs of the learners. Whatever the goals are set, however must attainable throuhg the use of action based on drills in the imperative form.

Learner in total physical response have the primary roles of listener and performer. They listen attentively and respond physically to commands given by the teacher. Learner are also expected to recognize and respond to novel combination of their own.

The teacher plays an active and direct role in total physical response. Is the teacher who decides what to teach , who models and presents the new materials and who selecs supporting material for classroom use.

In giving feedback to learners, the teacher should follow the example of parents giving feedback to their children.

The Audiolingual Method

The theory of language underlying Audiolingualism was derived from a view proposed by American linguist in the 1950s- a view that came to be known as structural linguistis. Linguistics had emerged as a flourishing academic discipline in the 1950s and the structural theory of language constituted its backbone.
The language teaching theoreticians nd methodologists whjo developed Audiolingiualism not only had a convincing and powerful theory of language to draw upon but they were also working in a eriod when a prominent school of American pyshcology known as behavioral psychology, claimed to have tapped the secrets of all human learning, including language learning.The psychological foundation of audilingualism and came to shape its methodological practices among the more central are the following:

• Foreign language learning is basically a proceses of mechanical habit formation. Good habits are formed by giving correct response raher than by making mistakes. By memorizing dialogues and performing patterns drills the chances of producing mistakes are minimized. Language is verbal behaviour, that is the automatic production and comprehension f utterances and can be learned by inducing the students to do likewise.

• Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form. Aural oral training is needed to provide the foundation for the development of other language skills.

• Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Analogy involves the processes of generalixation and discrimination. Explanations of rules are therefore not given until students have practiced a pattern in a variety of contexts and are thought to have acquired a perception of the analogies involved. Drills can enable learners to form correct analogies. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.

• The meanings that the words of a language have for the native spealer can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.. Teaching a language thus involves teaching aspects of the cultural system of the people who speak language.

The objectives of audiolingiual method are brooks distinguish between short range and long range. Short range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, regocnition of speech Long range objectives must be language as the native speakers use it… there must be some knowledge of a second language as it is possessed by a true billingualist.Types of learning and teaching activities are dialogues and drills. Dialogues provide the means of contextualizing key structures and illustrate situations in which structures might be used as well as some cultural aspect of the target language. After a dialogue has been presented and memorized, specific grammatical patterns in the dialogue are selected and become the focus of various kind of drill and pattern practices exercises.
Learner roles in audiolingual method are the learner viewed as organism that can be directed by skilled raining techniques to produce correct responses.
Teacher roles in audiolingual method is teacher as a central and active, it is a teacher dominated method.
Instructional in audiolingual method assist the teacher to deveop language mastery in the learner. They are primarily teacher oriented. A student textbook is often not used in the elementary phases of course where students are primarily listening, repeating and responding.
In a typically audiolingual lesson, the following procedures would be observed :

• Students first hear a model dialogue containing the key structures that are focus of the lesson.

• The dialogue is adapted to the students interests or situation, through changing certain keywords or phrases.

• Certain key structures from the dialogue are selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.

• The students may refer to their textbook, and follow up reading, writing or vocabulary activities basd on the dialogue may be introeduced.

• Follow up activities may take place in the language laboratory where further dialogue and drill work is carried out.

The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching

Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching refer to an approach to language teaching developed by British applied linguist  fron the 1930s to the 1960s. Even though neihter term s commonly used today, the impact of the Oral Approach has been long lasting and it has shaped the design of many widely used EFL/ESL textbook and courses, including many still being used today.
The origin of this approach began with the work of British applied linguists in the 1920s and 1930s. Beggining of this time a number of outstanding applied linguist developed the basis principled approache to methodology in language teaching.

• Vocabulary Control

One of the first aspects of method design to receive attention was the role of vocabulary. In the 1920s and 1930s several large scale investigations of foreign language vocabulary  were undertaken. Vocabulary was seen as an essential component of reading proficiency.

• Grammar Control

Parralel to the interest in developing rational principles for vocabulary selection was a focus on the grammatical content of a language course.The main characteristic of this approach were as follows :
- language teaching begins with the spoken language. material is taught orally before it is presented in written form
-the target language is the language of the classroom.
-new language points are introduced and practiced situationally.
-selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.
-items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complexs ones.
-reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.

The Direct Method

Direct method it in France and Germanyand it became widely known in the United States trough its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language school. In practice it stood for the following principles and procedures :

• Classroom instruction was conducted exclusiveky in the target language.

• Only everyday vocabulary and sentence were taught.

• Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question and answer exchanges between teachers and students in small intensive class

• Grammar was taught inductively.

• New teaching points were introduced orally.

• Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.

• Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.

• Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized

The direct method was wuite successful in private language schools, such as those of Berlitz chain, where paying clients had high motivation and the use of native speaking teachers was the norm. The direct method can be regarded as the first language teaching method to have caught the attention of teachers and language specialist and it offered a methodology that appeared to move language teaching into a new era. It marked the beginning of methods era.

Methods In Teaching Language

There are some methods in teaching language :

• Grammar Translation Method
• The Audiolingual Method
• Total Physical Response
• The Silent Way
• Suggestopedia
• Communicative Language Teaching
• Whole Language

Method In Teaching Language : Suggestopedia Method

Key Elements of Suggestopedia

Some of the key elements of Suggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment (pictures, colour, music, etc.), a positive expectation of success and the use of a varied range of methods: dramatised texts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.
Suggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four main stages as follows:

• Presentation

A preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun.

• First Concert - "Active Concert"

This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music.

• Second Concert - "Passive Review"

The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material.

• Practice

The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.

Elements and Subelements that Constitue a Method

METHOD :

• Approach 

A theory of the nature of language
-an account of the nature of language proficiency
-an account of the basic unit of language sturcture
A theory of the nature of language learning
-an account of the pshycolinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning
-an account of the conditions that allow for succesful use of these processes.

• Design

- The general and specific objectives of the method 
-A syllabus model
Types of learning and teaching activities
-Learner role : types of learning set for learners; degree of control learners have over the content of learning ; patterns of the learner groupings that are recomended or implied ; degree to which learners influence the learning of others; the view of the learners as a processor, performer, initiator, problem solver etc.
-Teacher role : types of function teachers fulfill ; degree of teacher influence over learning; degree to which the teacher determines the content of learning; types interaction between teachers and learners.
-The role of instructional materials : primary function of materials; the form materials take; relation of materials to toher input; assumption made about teachers andlearners.

• Procedure

Calssroom technique, practices, and behaviours when the methods is used.
-resouces in terms of time, space and equipment used by the teacher
-interactional patterns observed in lessons
- tactics and strategies used by the teacher and learners when the method is being used.