Skill 1 : Subject and Verb

You know that a sentence in English should have a subject and a verb. The most common types of problems that you will encounter in the structure section of the TOEFL test are related to subjects and verbs; perhaps the sentence is missing either the subject  or the verb or both, or perhaps the sentence has an extra subject or verb.
example 1 :
........was ringing continuously for  hours.

1. Loudly
2. In the morning
3. The phone
4. The bells

In this example, you should notice immediately that there is a verb (was ringing) but there is no subject. Answer (3) is the best answer because it is a singular subject that agrees with the singular verb was ringing . Answer )1) loudly and answer (2) in the morning, are not the subject, so they are not correct. Although answer (4) bells could be a subject, it is not correct because bells is plural and it does not agree with the singular verb was ringing.

example 2 : 
Newspaper....... every morning and every evening.

1. delivery
2. are delivered
3. on time
4. regularly

In this example, you should notice immediately  that the sentence has a subject (newspaper) but there is no verb. Because answer (2) are delivered, is a verb,, it is the best answer. Answer (1), (3), and (4) are not verb, so they are not correct.

example 3 :
The plane.....landing at the airport in five minutes.

1. it is
2. it really is
3. is descending
4. will be 

 This sentence has a subject (plane) and has part of a verb (landing); to be correct, some form of the verb be is needed to make the verb complete. Answer (1) and (2) are incorrect because the sentence already has a subject (plane) and does not need the extra subject it. Answer (3) is incorrect descending is an extra part of a verb that is necessary because of landing. Answer (4) is the best answer ; will be together with landing is a complete verb.

The following chart outlines the key information that you should remember about subject and verbs.
" A sentence in English must have at least one subject and one verb. The first thing you should do as you read a sentence in the structure section of the TOEFL test is to find the subject and the verb."

Skill 15 : Parralel Structure With Paired

The paired conjunctions both...and, either...or, neither...nor and not only...but also require parallel structures.

The lecture was both informative and enjoyable.
Either the history exam or the physics exam is on Tuesday.
The missing papers are neither on his desk nor in the file.
He visited not only his cousin but also his grandmother.

The following is not paralleled and must be corrected :

They wanted either to play  tennis or golf. It can be corrected in different ways :

They wanted either to play tennis or to play golf.
They want to play either tennis or golf.

When you are using these paired conjunctions, be sure that the correct parts  are used together. The following are incorrect :

He lent me both some paper or a pencil
Either breakfast nor lunch is included in the price.

 These sentences are incorrect because the wrong parts of the paired conjunctions are used together. In the first example, and should be used with both. In the second example, or should be used with either.

The following chart outlines the use of parallel structure with paired conjunctions.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS

Both                                                             and Either                 (same structure)                or                       (same structure) Neither                                                         nor Not only                                                      but also

Skill 16 : Past Participle After Have

Whenever you see the verb have in any of its forms (have, having, has, had) ,  be sure that the verb that follows it is in the past form.

We had complete the work
They have went to the market.

In the first example, complete should be the past participle completed because it is after had. In the second example, went should be the past participle gone because it is after have.

The following chart  outlines the use of verb forms  after have.

Verb Forms After Have : Have + Past Participle

Skill 3 : Present Participle

Present Participles can cause confusion in the Structure section of the TOEFL test because a present participle can be either an adjective or  a part of verb. A present participle is the -ing form of the verb be.

The train is arriving at the station now.

In this sentence, arriving is part of the verb  because it is accompanied by is.
A present participle is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form of the verb be.

The train arriving at the station now is an hour  late.

In this sentence, arriving is an adjective and not part of the verb because it is not accompanied by some form of be. The verb in this sentence is is.
The following example shows how a present participle can be confused with the verb in the Structure of the TOEFL test.

Example :
The film......appearing at the local theater is my favorite.

1. noun
2. is
3. it
4. was

 In this example, if you look at only the first word of the sentence, it appears that film is the subject and appearing is a part of the verb. If you think that appearing is part of, you might choose answer (2) is, or answer (4) was, to complete the verb. However, these two answers are incorrect because appearing is not part of verb. You should recognize that appearing is a participial adjective rather than a verb because there is another verb in the sentence (is). In this sentence, there is a complete subject (film)  and the complete verb (is), so this sentence does not need another subject or verb. The best answer to this question is answer (1).

The following chart outlines the key information you should remember about present participle.
" A present participle is the -ing form of the verb. The present participle can be (1) part of the verb or (2) an adjective. It is  part of the verb when it is accompanied by some form of the verb be. It is an adjective  when it is not accompanied by some form of verb be."

Skill 24 : Adjectives And Adverb

Sometime in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test, adjectives are incorrectly used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are incorrectly used in place of adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses in sentences. Adjectives have only one job : they describes nouns or pronouns.

It is a delicious meal.
It is delicious.

In the first example, the adjective delicious describes the noun meal. In the second example, the adjective delicious describes the pronoun it.
Adverbs have three different uses. They can describes verbs, adjectives or toher adverbs.

He writes letters quickly.
It is a quickly written letter.
It is an extremely quickly written letter.

In the first example, the adverb quickly describes the verb writes. In the second example, the adverb quickly describes the adjective written (which describes the noun letter).  In third example, the adverb extremely describes the adverb quickly, which describes the adjective written (which describes the noun letter)

The following are examples of incorrect sentences as they might appear on the TOEFL test.

They were seated at largely table.
The child talked soft to her mother
We read an extreme long story.
She speaks unbelievable quickly.

In the first example, the adverb largely is incorrect because the adjective large is needed to describes the noun table.In the second example, the adjective soft is incorrect because the adverb softly is needed to describe the verb talked. In the third example the adjective extreme is incorrect because the adverb extremely is needed to describe the adjective long. In the last example the adjective unbelievable is incorrect because the adverb unbelievably is needed to describes the adverb quickly. 

The following chart outlines the important information that you should remember about the use of adjectives and adverbs.

USE OF ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBS
Adjective	Adjectives describe noun or pronouns
Adverb	Adverbs describes verbs, adjectives or other adverbs

Skill 5 : Coordinate Connectors

Many sentences in English have more than one clause. ( A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb). When you have two clauses in an English sentence, you must connect two clauses correctly. One way to connect the two clauses is to use and, but, or, or so between the clauses.

The sun was shining, and the sky was blue.
The sky was blue, but it was very cold.
It may rain tonight, or it may be clear.
It was raining outside, so I took my umbrella.

In each of these examples , there are two clauses that are  correctly joined with a coordinate connector-and, but, or, or so - and a comma(,).
The following example shows how this sentence pattern could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.
example :
I forgot my coat,....I got very cold.

1. then
2. so
3. later
4. as a result

In this example, you should notice quickly that there are two clauses, I forgot my coat  and I got very cold. This sentences needs a connectors to join the two clauses. Then, latter and as a result are not connectors, so answer (1),(3) and (4) are not correct.
The best answer is answer (2) because so can connect two clauses in this manner.

The following chart lists the coordinate connectors and the sentence pattern used with them.
                      
S          +          V        +   , (comma)        +     coordinate connector   +      S             +   V

Skill 14 : Parallel Structure With Coordinate Conjunctions

The job of the coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or) is to join together equal expressions. In others words, what is on one side of theses words must be parallel to what is on the other side. These conjunctions can join nouns, or verbs or adjectives or phrases or clauses, they just must join together the same structures. Here are examples of equal structures correctly joined by coordinate conjunctions:

He discussed the problem with the nurse and the doctor.
The professor was knowledgeable but boring.
She hikes, jogs, or rides her bicycle whenever she can.
There are meetings in the morning, in the afternoon, and in the evening.
You can do the work  because you want to do it or because you have to do it.

In the first example, two nouns are joined by the coordinate conjunction and. In the second example, two adjectives are joined by  the coordinate conjunction but. In third example, there verbs are joined by the coordinate conjunction and. In the last example, two clauses are joined by the coordinate conjunction or.

The sentence that follow show the types of errors in parallel that are common on the TOEFL test.

He evening dress was beauty but expensive.
The student reach chapter, takes a lot of notes, and memories the material.

In first example, the coordinate conjunction but joins the noun beauty and the adjective expensive. The adjective beautiful in place of beauty. In the second example, the coordinate conjunction and joins the  verbs takes, and the plural noun memories, the verb memorizes is needed in place of memories.

The following chart outlines the use of parallel structure with coordinate conjunctions .

PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

(same structure)        and, but, or             (same structure)

(same structure)   (same structure)    and, but, or  (same structure)

Skill 11 : Agreement After Preposotional Phrases

Subject or verb agreement is simple. If the subject or a sentence is singular, then the verb must be singular, if the subject of the sentence is plural, then the verb  must be plural. An s on a verb usually indicates that a verb is singular, while an s on a noun usually indicates that the noun is plural. (Don't forget irregular plurals of nouns, such as women, children, and people)

The dog barks at night
The dogs bark at night.

In the first example, the singular subject dog requires a singular verb, barks. In the second example, the plural subject dogs requires a plural verb, bark.

Sometime a prepositional phrases can come between the subject and the verb on the TOEFL test and this can cause confusion. If the object of preposition is singular and subject is plural, or if the object of preposition is plural and the subject is singular, there can be a problem in making the subject and verb agree.

The door (to the rooms) are locked.
The doors (to the room) is locked.


In the first example, you might think rooms is the subject because it comes directly in front of the verb are. However, noun is not the subject because it is the object of the preposition to. The subject of the sentence is door, so the verb should be is. In the second example, you might think that room is the subject because it comes directly in front of the verb is. You should recognize in this example that room is not the subject because it is the object of the preposition to. Because the subject of the sentence is doors, the verb should be are. 
The following chart outlines the key information that you should understand about the subject /verb agreement with the prepositional phrases.

SUBJECT/ VERB AGREEMENT WITH PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

S    prepositional phrase     V

When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb, be sure that the verb agrees with the subject.

Skill 12 : Agreement After Certain Words

Certain words in English are always grammatically singular , even though they might have plural meanings.

Everybody in the theater are watching the film attentively.

Even though , we understand from this example that a lot of people are watching the film, everybody is singular and requires a singular verb. The plural verb are watching should be changed to the singular verb is watching.

The following chart lists the grammatically singular words that plural meanings.
Subject/Agreement After Certain Words
These words or expressions are grammatically singular, so they take singular verbs :

• anybody
  anyone
•  anything
• everybody
• everyone
• everything
• nobody
• no one
• nothing
• somebody
• someone
• something
• each + noun
• every + noun

Skill 25 : Adjectives After Linking Verbs

Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb.

She spoke nicely.
In this example, the verb spoke if followed by the adverb nicely. This adverb describes the verb spoke.
However you must be very careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb.

She looks nice.
In this example, the linking verb looks is followed by the adjective nice. This adjective describes the subject she.
You should be sure to use an adjective rather than an adverb a linking verb. Be careful, however, because the adjective that goes with the linking verb does not always directly follow the linking verb.

He seems unusually nice.


In this example, the adjective nice, which describes the subject he, is itself described by the adverb unusually. From this example, you should notice that it is possible to have an adverb directly after a linking verb, but only if the adverb describes an adjective that follows.

Theses sentences show the type of errors with linking verbs that is common on the TOEFL test.

The test look easily to me.
Sally feels unbelievable happy about the news.

In the first example, the linking verb looks should be followed by the adjective easy rather than adverb easily. In the second example, the linking verb feels is followed  by the adjective happy. The incorrect adjective unbelievable should be the adverb unbelievably because it describes the adjective happy.

The following charts list commonly used linking verbs and outlines the different uses of adjectives and adverbs after regular verbs and linking verbs.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS AFTER VERBS

(subject) + (regular verb) + (adverb) ( a regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes  the verb)

(subject) + (linking verb) + (adjective) A linking verb is followed by an adjective. The adjective describes the subject)

(subject) + (linking verb) + (adverb) It is possible for a linking verb to be followed by an adverb and an adjective . The adverb describes the adjective ad the adjective describes the subject.

Linking verbs  : Appear Be Become Feel Look Prove Seem Smell taste

Skill 9 : Adjective Clause Connectors

An adjective clause describes a  noun. Because the clause is an adjective, it is positioned directly after the noun that it describes.

This is the house that I want to buy.
The house that I want to buy is quite expensive.

In the first example, there are two clauses : this  is the subject of the verb is and I is the subject of the verb want. That  is the adjective clause connector that joins these two clauses, and the adjective clause that I want to buy describes the noun house
In the second example, there are also two clauses :   house is the subject of the verb, is and I  is the subject of the verb want . In this sentence also, that  I want to buy  describes the noun house.

The following chart example shows how these sentence patterns could be tested in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.

example :
The job.......started yesterday was rather difficult.

1. when
2. was
3. after
4. that he  

In this example, you should notice quickly that there are two clauses; job is the subject of the verb  was, and the verb started need a subject. Because there are two clauses, a connector is also needed. Answer (1) and (3)   have connectors, but there are no subjects, so these answer are not correct. Answer (2) changes started into a passive verb; in this case the sentence would have one subject and two verbs, so answer (2) is not correct. The best answer to this question is answer (4). The correct sentence should say : The job that he started yesterday was rather difficult.  In this sentence job is the subject of the verb was, he is the subject of the verb started and the connector that joins two clauses.

The following chart lists the adjective clause connectors and the sentence patterns used with them.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR
Whom (for people)	Which (for thing)	That (for people or thing)
S             V                                adjective clause connector                S                     V
I            like the dress	That	You         are wearing
S                                                adjective clause connector                  S       V             V
The dress	That	You  are wearing  is beautiful

Skill 17 : Present Participle or Past Participles After Be

The verb be in any of its forms (am, is, are, were, be, been, being) can be followed by another verb. This verb should be in either the present participle or the past participle form.

They are turn on all the lamps.
The office door is lock in the morning.

In the first example, turn on should be turning on because it is after are. In the second example, lock should be locked because it is after is.

The following chart outlines the use of verb forms after be.
Verb Forms After Be : Be + (1) Present participle
                                               (2) past participle

Skill 8 : Noun Clause Connectors/Subject

In skill 7 we saw that noun clause connectors can be used too introduce noun clauses. In skill 8 we will see that in some cases a noun clause connectors is just a connector; a noun clause can also be subject of at the clause at same time. Study the clauses and connectors in the following sentences :

• I know what happened yesterday 

• We are thinking about what happened yesterday. 

In the first example , there are two clauses : I know and what happened yesterday . These two clauses are joined by the connector what. It is important to understand that in this sentence the word what serve two functions. It is both the subject of the verb happened and the connector that joins the two clauses.
In the second example, there are two clauses. In first clause we is the subject of are thinking. In the second clause what is the subject of happened. What also serves as the connector that joins two clauses. Then noun clauses what happened yesterday functions as the object of the preposition about.

The following example show this sentence pattern could be tested in Structure section of the TOEFL test.
example :
The company was prepared for ........with the economy.

1. it
2. the problem
3. what
4. when

 In this example, the sentence contains the main clause The company was prepared for and another verb, happened. The sentence needs a subject for the verb happened and a connector to join two clauses. Answer (3) is the best answer because what  is both a connector and a subject. Answer (1) is incorrect because it is a subject, but there is no connector. Answer (2) is incorrect because the problem is a subject, but there is no connector. Answer (4) is incorrect because when is a connector, but it is not a subject.

The following chart list the noun clause connector /subject and the sentence pattern used with them.

NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR / SUBJECT

Who what which

S        V             Noun Clause Connector/Subject          V

Al        told me                   what                                      happened

Skill 19 : Singular and Plural Nouns

A problem that is common in the written expression section of the TOEFL test is a singular noun used where a plural noun is needed, or a plural noun used where a singular noun is needed.

He just finished several book.
She studied each chapters.

In the first example, several indicates that the plural books is needed. In the second example, each indicates that the singular chapter is needed.
In the written expression of the TOEFL test you should watch very carefully for the key words such as each, every, a, and single, that indicate that a noun should be singular.You should  also watch carefully for keywords such as many, several,and three that indicate that a noun should be plural.

The following chart list the key words that indicate to you whether a noun should be singular or plural.

KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS
For Singular Noun	Each, every, single, one, a
For Plural Nouns	Both, two, many, several, various

Skill 23 : Pronoun Reference

After you checked that the subject and object pronouns and the possessives are used correctly, you should also check of theses pronouns and possessive for agreement. The following are examples of errors of this type that you might fin on the TOEFL test.

The cookies are for you, so please take it.
Each person has to sign their application form.

In the first example, the singular pronoun it is incorrect because it refers to the plural noun cookies. This pronoun should be replaced with the plural pronoun them. In the second example, the plural possessive adjective their is incorrect because it refers to the singular each person. This adjective should be replaced with the singular his or his or her.

The following chart outlines what you should remember about checking pronoun reference.

PRONOUN AGREEMENT

Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers  to. You generally check earlier in the sentence for agreement.

Skill 10 : Adjective Clause Connectors/ Subjects

In skill 9 we saw that adjective clause connectors can be used to introduce clauses that describes nouns. In skill 10 we will see that in some cases an adjective clause connectors is not just a connector, an adjective clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time.

We are looking at a house that is quite expensive
The house that is quite expensive seems like a great  house. 

In the first example, there are two clauses : we is the subject of the verb are looking, and that is the subject of the verb is. These two clauses are joined with the connector that. Notice that in this example the word that serves two functions at the same time, it is the subject of the verb is, and it is the connector that joins the two clauses . The adjective clause that is quite expensive describes the noun house.
In the second example, there are also two clause : House is the subject of the verb seems, and that is the subject of the verb is. In this example,that also serves two functions ; it is the subject of the verb is and it is the connector that joins two clause. Because that is quite expensive is an adjective clause describing the noun house, it directly follows house.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECT
Who (for people)	Which (for things)	That (for people or things)
S           V                               Adjective Clause Connector                       V
S                                            Adjective Clause Connector                        V       V
Note : Although adjective clause connectors can be omitted in informal English., adjective clause connector /subjects can never be omitted.

Skill 18 : Base Form Verbs After Modals

Whenever you see modal such as will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, or must, you should be sure that the verb that follows it is in its base form.

You must telling her the truth.
The child may comes in now.

In the first example, telling should be the base form tell because it follows must. In the second example, comes should be the base form come because it follows may.

The following chart outlines the use of verb forms after modals.
Verb Forms After Modals : Modal + Base form of the verb

Skill 20 : Countable and Uncountable Nouns

In English, nouns are classified as countable or uncountable. For certain questions on the TOEFL test, it is necessarily to distinguish countable and uncountable nouns in order to use the correct modifiers with them.
As the same implies, countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. Countable nouns can come in quantities of one or two or a hundred etc. The noun look is countable because you can have one book or several books.
Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, are nouns that cannot be counted because they come in some indeterminate quantity or mass. A noun such as milk or happiness cannot be counted ; you cannot have one milk or two milks, and you cannot find one happiness or two happiness. Uncountable nouns are often liquid items such as water,oil or shampoo . Uncountable noun can also refer to abstract ideas such as security, friendship, or hope.

 It is important for you to recognize the difference between countable and uncountable nouns when you came across such keywords as much and many.

They have taken much trips recently.
There was not many water in the pool

In the first example, much is incorrect because trips is countable. This sentence should say much water.

The following chart list the key words that indicate to you whether a noun is countable or uncountable.

KEY WORDS FOR COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
For countable nouns	Many, number, few, fewer
For uncountable nouns	Much, amount, little, less

Skill 2 : Objects of Preposition

An object of preparation is a noun or pronoun that comes after a preposition such as in, at, of, by, behind and on to form a prepositional phrase.

The trip (to the island) (on Saturday) will last (for three hours).

This sentence contains three objects of prepositions. Island is the object of the preposition to; Saturday is the object of preposition on; how is the object of the preposition for. 
An object of a preposition can cause confusion in the Structure section of the TOEFL test because it can be mistaken for the subject of a sentence.
Example :
To Mike.........was a big  surprise.

1. really
2. the party
3. funny
4. when

In this example, you should look first for the subject and the verbs. You should notice the verb was and should also  notice that there is no subject. Do not think that Mike is the subject; Mike is the object of the preposition to, and one noun cannot be both subject and an object at the same time. Because a subject is needed in this sentence, answer (2) the party, is the best answer. Answer (1), (3) and (4) are not correct because they cannot be subjects.

The following chat outlines the key information that you should remember about objects of prepositions.
"A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that is called an object of the preposition. If a word is an object of preposition, it is not the subject."

Skill 4 : Past Participle

Past participle can cause confusion in the Structure  section of the TOEFL test because a past participle can be either an adjective or a part of the verb. The past participle is the form of the verb that appears with have or be, it often ends in -ed, but there also many irregular past participles in English

The mailman has left a letter in the mailbox.
The classes were taught by Professor Smith.

In the first sentence, the past participle left is part of the verb because it is accompanied by has.  In the second sentence, the past participle taught is part of the verb because it is accompanied by were.

A past participle is an adjective when it is not accompanied by some form  of be or have.

The letter left in the mailbox was for me.
The classes taught by Professor Smith were very interesting.

In the first sentence, left is an adjective rather than a verb because it is not accompanied by a form of be or have (and there is a verb), was, later in the sentence). In the second sentence, taught is an adjective rather than a verb because it is not accompanied by a form of be or have (and there is a verb, were, later in the sentence).

The following example shows how a past participle can be confused with the verb in the Structure section of the TOEFL test.

Example :
The bread....baked this morning smelled delicious.

1. has
2. was
3. it
4. just

 In this example, if you look only at the first few words of the sentence, it appears that bread is the subject and baked is either a complete verb or a past participle that needs a helping verb. But if you look further in the sentence, you will see the verb smelled. You will then recognize that baked is a participial adjective and is therefore not part of the verb. Answer (1) and (2) are incorrect because baked is an adjective ad does not need a helping verb such as has or was. Answer the (3) is incorrect because there is no need for the subject it. Answer (4) is the best answer to this question.

The following chart outlines the key information that you should remember about past participles.
"A past participle often ends in -ed, but there are also many irregular past participle. For many verbs, including -ed verbs, the simple past and the past participle are the same and can be easily confused. The -ed form of the verb can be (1) the simple past, (2) the past participle of a verb, or (3) an adjective"