English Grammar : The Use of Future Perfect Tense

Education English | English Grammar : The Use of Future Perfect Tense | Future perfect tense tells us that a certain action will be completed by a certain future time.

" Do you think we will have found papaya without seed in it by the end of this year?"

The certain time in the future is "by the end of this year". I am sure our botanist will have invented it before long, means at a certain time in the future  (before long) our botanist will have invented it.

I shall have read this book by six o'clock tonight.

This means that I have not yet read this book, but at six's o'clock tonight that is at a time in the future tonight, which is at a time in the future, the reading of the book will be past.

Observe the other examples :

• I shall have read seven of Erhan's plays by the end of this year.
• The football match may have finished if we do not hurry up.
• If nothing goes wrong. I shall have arrived in Bali Midday tomorrow.
• The leaves will have fallen from the trees after two months.
• The sun will have set by five o'clock this afternoon.

The pattern of the future perfect tense :

Subject + will, may, shall + have + V-ed2 + O

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Making Suggestions

English Grammar | Making suggestions | 4 ways to tell your friends what you would like to do in the next few days:
1) WHAT ABOUT/HOW ABOUT ... + Base form + −ING

• What about going to the pictures tonight?
• How about going to the pictures tonight?

2) WHY + Negative

• Why don't we go to the swimming−pool tomorrow?

3) IMPERATIVE: Let's + Base form

• Let's go to the restaurant now!

4) COULD

• We could visit Paris next week.

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Conditional

English Grammar | Conditional | The conditional is formed using the modal "would" in front of an infinitive (dropping the word "to"). The
conditional is used especially in three contexts:
1) Politeness

• I would like the menu, please.
• Would you have a couple of minutes for me?

2) To indicate the "future within the past":

• She said she would come to the party.
• I thought he would arrive before me.

3) In hypothetical constructions with "if." When "if" is followed by the preterit or the
subjunctive, the conditional is expected in the second clause:

• If I had the time, I would do my homework.
• If you told me the truth, I would believe you.
• The "if" of hypothetical expressions can be implicit:
• In your position (= if I were you), I wouldn't stay here!

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Adjective Placement

English Grammar | Adjective Placement | Where should I put my adjectives? When you use several adjectives, please use he following
order to build your sentence. Please note that sentences containg 4 (or more!) adjectives are very
awkward and should be split into several sentences.
Opinion
>> an interesting movie, an exciting journey
Dimension
>> a large house, a big car
Age
>> an old boat, a young boy
Shape
>> an oval carpet, a round table
Colour
>> a grey raincoat, a green door
Origin
>> French bread, a Japanese town
Material
>> a plastic bottle, a wooden treasure
EXAMPLES:
>A wonderful old Italian clock. (opinion - age - origin)
>A big square blue box. (dimension - shape - colour)
>A disgusting pink plastic ornament. (opinion - colour - material)
>Some slim new French trousers. (dimension - age - origin)
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Adjectives: Forms and Usage

English Grammar | Adjectives: forms & usage | Forms:
Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number and gender.

• a blue car
• the great outdoors
• a group of young women

However, a few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine.
Thus, one says that a woman is beautiful while a man would be called handsome.
Adjectives indicating religion or nationality (or a region, state or province) generally begin with a capital
letter, whether they refer to people or objects:

• She is an American student.
• They go to a Catholic school.
• They enjoy Breton music.

Usage:
The adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies. When two
adjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the conjunction"and." In a series
of three or more adjectives, one usually uses "and" before the last adjective in the list.
Examples:

• I like short novels.
• That fellow will be a competent worker.
• She writes long and flowery letters.
• He works long, hard hours.
• She had a mean, old and overbearing step−mother.

An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative clause. (In
relative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit.)
Examples:

• He was a man (who was) always happy to help others.
• She is a woman (who is) true to herself.

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Adverbs

English Grammar | Adverbs | I) Building adverbs
A. Most adverbs are formed from the adjective. One adds the ending "−ly" to the adjectival form:
intelligent −−> intelligently, slow −−> slowly ,
precise −−> precisely
B. If the adjective ends with "−le," simply replace the "e" with "y": simple −−> simply , subtle
−−> subtly ,
C. The adverb corresponding to the adjective "good" is irregular: good −−> well
D. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: high , low , hard , better , fast
E. In general, adverbs of time and space have no corresponding adjective; the same can be said
of adverbs of quantity: yesterday , today ,
tomorrow , early , soon , late , here , there , less , more , as , very , much , a lot of , little of
II) Where?
A. When an adverb modifies a verb, it generally comes at the end of the clause (but before any
prepositional phrases or subordinated clauses):
He writes poorly. She pronounced that word well.. Joseph worked diligently. They worked hard
before coming home.
Exceptions: a few adverbs telling the speaker's opinion, such as "probably," "undoubtedly,"
"surely," "certainly," etc., come at the beginning
of the sentence, or between the modal verb (or auxiliary) and the principal verb:
We are probably going to spend the summer in Corsica. Certainly we would never do that! We
will undoubtedly see a dirty political campaign
this year.
B. Adverbs of time and space generally come at the end of the sentence; however, they may be
placed at the beginning of the sentence if the
predicate clause is long and complicated:
I saw her yesterday. We're going to the beach today. She went to bed very early. Tomorrow we
will try to get up early to prepare for our trip.
C. Adverbs modifying adjectives or an other adverb are placed before the adjective or the adverb
they modify:
She was really very happy to see you. It was a brilliantly staged performance.
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Defining Relative Clauses VS. Non−defining relative clauses

English Grammar | Defining Relative Clauses VS. Non−defining relative clauses | Non−defining Relative Clauses
They provide interesting additional information which is not essential to understanding the
meaning of the sentence.
Example: Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.
"Mrs Johnson lives on the corner" provides a good piece of information. We also know that she
is very intelligent, thanks to the relative clause
(another interesting piece of information).
NB: YOU MUST USE COMMAS!
Defining Relative Clauses
− their information is crucial in understanding the meaning of the sentence.
− if you remove them, the sentence has a different meaning or no meaning at all.
Examples:
The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested.
What woman? The woman who lives in apartment n°34, not another woman.
A defining relative clause clearly defines who or what we are talking about. Without this
information, it would be difficult to know who or what
is meant.
NB: NO COMMAS!
Defining Relative Clauses
Subject:
Example:

• Children who (that) play with fire are in great danger of harm.
• The man who bought all the books by Hemingway has died.
• Which is better? which/who OR that?

who and which: written English
that: oral English
Object:
Example:

• That's the boy (Ø , that, who, whom) I invited to the party.
• There's the house (Ø, that, which) I'd like to buy.

Possessive:
Example:
He's the man whose car was stolen last week.
They were sure to visit the town whose location (OR the location of which) was little known.
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Non−defining Relative Clauses

English Grammar | Non−defining relative clauses | Person Object
Subject who which
Object who, whom which
Possessive whose whose, of which
Examples:
>> SUBJECT:
Frank Zappa, who was one of the most creative artists in rock 'n roll, came from California.
>> OBJECT:
Frank invited Janet, who (whom) he had met in Japan, to the party.
Peter brought his favorite antique book, which he had found at a flee market, to show his friends.
>> POSSESSIVE:
Olympia, whose name is taken from the Greek, is the capitol of Washington State.
The singer, whose most recent recording has had much success, is signing autographs.
The artist, whose name he could not remember, was one of the best he had ever seen.
>> NOTE:
In non−defining relative clauses, which can be used to refer to an entire clause.
Example: He came for the weekend wearing only some shorts and a t−shirt, which was a stupid
thing to do.
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The subjunctive

English Grammar | The subjunctive | The subjunctive is used rarely. One finds vestiges of it in a few hypothetical expressions (using "if + tobe") and in a few set phrases.
(In many cases the subjunctive −− considered archaic or literary −− is replaced by the modal "would,"
used to express the conditional.)
Other meanings often communicated by the subjunctive in other languages will be expressed by modal
verbs in English.
> In constructions using "if + to be", one should use "were" (instead of "was") with the first and
third persons
singular ("I" and "he," "she," or "it"). (In spoken English, and in much informal writing, "was"
will still be used.)
If I were Muriel, I'd never go back there.
If she were alone, I'd stop by to see her.
He acts as if he were crazy.
> When you use verbs, the rule is easy to understand:
If I had enough money, I would buy a big house.
> Set phrases and proverbs:

• God help us!
• Long live the king!
• Would that I were free!

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Reflexive Pronouns

English Grammar | Reflexive Pronouns | Reflexive pronouns are used to show that the actions described by a verb act upon the subject of the verb:
the subject and the object are thus the same. The forms of reflexive pronouns correspond to the forms of
the subject pronouns:
Subject pronouns
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
To use a verb reflexively, the reflexive pronoun must follow the verb (and, in the case of an intransitive
verb, it will follow any preposition used with the verb). If there are multiple verbs in the sentence, the
reflexive pronoun follows the verb to which it applies:

• I told myself it would never happen.
• She talks to herself all the time.
• Look at yourself in that mirror!
• I would like to give myself a raise.

At the end of a sentence, one can add reflexive pronouns as a way of accentuating the subject in the
sentence. In this case, the verb does not have reflexive power:

• I would rather do that myself.
• Can you talk to him yourself?

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Present Participles

English Grammar | Present Participles | Formation
The present participle is formed by adding the ending "−−ing" to the infinitive (dropping any
silent "e" at the end of the infinitive):
to sing −−> singing
to take −−> taking
to bake −−> baking
to be −−> being
to have −−> having
Use
A. The present participle may often function as an adjective:
That's an interesting book.
That tree is a weeping willow.
B. The present participle can be used as a noun denoting an activity
(this form is also called a gerund):
Swimming is good exercise.
Traveling is fun.
C. The present participle can indicate an action that is taking place, although it cannot stand by
itself as a verb. In these cases it generally modifies a noun (or pronoun), an adverb, or a past
participle:
Thinking myself lost, I gave up all hope.
Washing clothes is not my idea of a job.
Looking ahead is important.
D. The present participle may be used with "while" or "by" to express an idea of simultaneity
("while") or causality ("by") :
He finished dinner while watching television.
By using a dictionary he could find all the words.
While speaking on the phone, she doodled.
By calling the police you saved my life!
E. The present participle of the auxiliary "have" may be used with the past participle to describe
a past condition resulting in another action:
Having spent all his money, he returned home.
Having told herself that she would be too late, she accelerated.

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SOME, ANY, NO

English Grammar | SOME, ANY, NO | SOME: used in positive sentences for countable and uncountable nouns.
Example: I have some friends.
ANY: used in negative sentences or questions for countable and uncountable nouns.
Example: Do you have any cheese? − He doesn't have any friends in Chicago.
EXCEPTION! "some" is used in questions when offering or requesting something that is there.
Examples: Would you like some bread? (offer) − Could I have some water? (request)
SOMEBODY, SOMEWHERE, SOMETHING: Used in positive sentences.
Example: He lives somewhere near here.
ANYBODY, ANYWHERE, ANYTHING: Used in negative sentences or questions.
Examples: Do you know anything about that boy? − She doesn't have anywhere to go.
NOTHING: Used in positive sentences (with a negative meaning).
Example: This show is very boring! There's nothing interesting!

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INTERROGATIVE WORD

English Grammar | INTERROGATIVE WORD |  When?
I bought a new car yesterday. When did you buy a new car?
Where?
I went to Paris. Where did you go to?
How much + Singular / How many + Plural
I ate two apples. How many apples did you eat?
Why?
I went to the hospital because I was ill. Why did you go the hospital?
Which
when a choice must be made between 2 things:
· Which film do you want to see? "Impossible Mission" or "Pretty Woman"?
· Here are two pizzas. Which one do you prefer?
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ASKING A QUESTION

English Grammar | ASKING A QUESTION | A) THE RULE
interrogative pronoun/adverb + auxiliary + subject + verb + ...
Examples
Why did you go to Spain?
Exception: when WHO is the subject of the sentence:
Example
Who went to Spain?
B) THE MAIN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS / ADVERBS
WHO

• Peter has broken the vase.
• Who has broken the vase?

WHAT

• John took an orange.
• What did John take?

WHICH

• Which pullover do you want? The blue one or the red one?

WHEN

• I went to Spain in 1998. When did you go to Spain?

WHY

• I am sad because my dog is ill.
• Why are you sad?

WHAT... FOR

• I save money to buy a new car.
• What do you save money for?

HOW + adjective
HOW

• I go to Belgium by car. How do you go to Belgium?

HOW FAR

• I am 5 miles from Paris. How far are you from Paris?

HOW LONG

• This movie lasts for 2 hours.
• How long does this movie last?

HOW MUCH + singulier

• I want two bottles of milk.
• How much milk do you want?

HOW MANY + pluriel
I want three potatoes. How many potatoes do you want?
HOW OFTEN

• I go to Spain twice a week.
• How often do you go to Spain?

HOW OLD

• I am 24 years old. How old are you?

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THE SUPERLATIVE

English Grammar | THE SUPERLATIVE | When comparing two things one uses the comparative (previous lesson); however, for

comparisons in larger groups, you must use the superlative. The superlative designates extremes:
the best, the first, the worst, the last, etc.
A. It is the word "most" or the ending "−−est" that designates the superlative.
· He is the most efficient worker we have. · That is the poorest family in the neighborhood.
B. The compared term (adjective or adverb) will be preceded by the definite article:
· He works the fastest of any student I know. · She is the tallest woman in town.
C. Unlike the comparative, the superlative is not followed by "than": instead, one uses "of,"
followed by the context of the comparison (although this context is sometimes implicit):
· It's the best day of my life! · She works the best of the whole class. · She's the one who arrived
first.
Irregular forms
Monosyllabic adjectives (and several common two−syllable adjectives) take the ending "−−est"
in superlatives of superiority, and thus will not use the adverb "most."
However, these same adjectives will use "less," like other adjectives, in superlatives of
inferiority:
young −−> the youngest, tall −−> the tallest, old −−> the oldest
>If the adjective ends in "−−y" the "y" becomes "i":
heavy −−> the heaviest, early −−> the earliest, busy −−> the busiest, healthy −−> the healthiest,
chilly −−> the chilliest
>If the adjective ends in "−−e" one adds only "−−st" :
wise −−> the wisest, large −−> the largest, simple −−> the simplest, late −−> the latest,
>If the adjective ends in "single vowel + consonant," the consonant is doubled and one adds
"−−est":
red −−> the reddest, big −−> the biggest, thin −−> the thinnest, hot −−> the hottest
>Some very common superlatives have irregular forms:
good −−> the best, bad −−> the worst, far −−> the farthest,
>Some adjectives exist only in superlative form:
the first, the last
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Comparatives

English Grammar | Comparatives | Main rule:
Comparatives are used to compare two things and to highlight the superiority, inferiority, or
equality of one term compared to
another.
Short Adjectives
( 1 - 2 syllables)
Long Adjectives
(3+ syllables) superiority
ADJ + -ER than
fast > X is faster than Y.
MORE + ADJ than
expensive > X is more expensive than Y.
equalitity
as ADJ as
big > X is as big as Y.
inferiority
less ADJ than
beautiful > X is less beautiful than Y.
Examples: Jean is taller than Catherine. Philippe is less tall than Jean. Leïla is as tall as Jean.
young --> younger | tall --> taller | old --> older
NOTES:
If the adjective ends in "--y" the "y" becomes "i" :
heavy --> heavier | early --> earlier | busy --> busier | healthy --> healthier | chilly --> chillier
If the adjective ends in "--e" only an "r" is needed:
wise --> wiser | large --> larger | simple --> simpler | late --> later
If the adjective ends with "single vowel + consonant" the consonant is doubled and one adds "--
er" :
big --> bigger | thin --> thinner | hot --> hotter
Comparatives
> Some very common adjectives have irregular comparatives:
good --> better | bad --> worse | far --> farther

The Passive Voice

English Grammar | The Passive Voice |  Main use:
It is used to put the emphasis on the person or the thing which is affected by an action. It is used
in sentences where the object of the action is
more important than the people who perform the action.
Syntax: Subject + BE (tense of the active sentence) + Past participle
Important: If you need to tell who is doing the action, use BY
America was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492.
Examples:
Present (be+ing):
Peter is eating an apple.
>An apple is being eaten by Peter.
Present Simple:
They make shoes in this factory.
>Shoes are made in this factory.
Preterite:
They built this bridge in the 13th century.
>This bridge was built in the 13th century.
and so on...
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FUTURE PERFECT AND FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

English Grammar | FUTURE PERFECT AND FUTURE PROGRESSIVE | 1.  Future perfect
Relatively rare in English, the future perfect serves to express one future action which precedes a
future moment or another future action.
Moreover, it asserts that these actions will be completed before the principal action. It is formed
by adding the modal "will" to the auxiliary "have," preceding the past participle:
She will have finished before eight o'clock.
Tomorrow morning they will all have left.
They will already have finished eating by the time we get there.
One can often use the simple future instead of the future perfect, but a nuance is lost: the simple
future does not emphasize the completion of the first action:
Tomorrow morning they will all leave. (The future perfect would emphasize that they will
already have departed before tomorrow morning.)
They will finish eating by the time we get there. (They may finish just as we arrive; the future
perfect would emphasize that they will have
finished before we arrive.)
2. Future progressive
The future progressive serves to express an action which will be in the process of occurring. It is
formed by putting the present progressive into the future: will be + present participle.
I will be waiting for you at six o'clock.
He will be eating by the time you arrive.
Hint for usage: How to choose between the future progressive and the simple future? If it is
possible to use the expression "will be in the process of," it is the future progressive that best
expresses the action.
The future progressive indicates that an action will be continuing at a given moment; the simple
future suggests that the action will be complete. Thus the verb tense can nuance meaning.
Consider these sentences, both of which are grammatically correct:
I will be finishing my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I may finish my homework at
10:05 or 10:15; I will be nearing completion, in the
process of completion.)
I will finish my homework at 10:00. (This suggests that I will finish at 10 :00 sharp.

FUTURE

English Grammar | FUTURE |  WILL:
− predictions (John won't win the race; the weather will be very bad tomorrow.)
− scheduled events (the show will start at 10 tonight).
− promises: I will help you to do your homework tonight.
Syntax: S + WILL + base form

• Will you help me?
• I will help you

> You will help you / He will help you / We will help you / You will help you / They will help
you.
GOING TO:
− planned events or intentions (which have been decided on before the moment of speaking and
which are not very far from this moment).
Syntax: S + BE (present tense) + GOING TO + base form

• Are you going to buy a car tomorrow?
• I am going to buy a car tomorrow morning.

> You are going to buy a car… She is going to buy a car… We are going to buy a car… You are
going to buy a
car… They are going to buy a car…

Pluperfect

English Grammar | Pluperfect |  The plu−perfect is formed with the auxiliary HAD, followed by the past participle of the
main verb:

• He had always wanted to travel in Africa.
• She had already left when Philippe arrived.
• I bought the book that Corinne had recommended to me.

The plu−perfect shows that the action has been done before another action (in the past).
Adverbs such as "already" reinforce this impression.

• She learned to love the dog that had bitten her the week before.
• When I got home, I had already heard the bad news.
• The children ate all the cookies that their father had bought.

The plu−perfect is often used in hypothetical expressions with "if", in conjunction with the
past conditional:

• I would not have come if I had known he was ill.
• With the adverb "just", the plu−perfect indicates the immediate past in a past context:
• He had just eaten lunch when I arrived.
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